Effect of Mobile Phone Base Stations on Antioxidant and Oxidant Serum Levels: Possible Impact on Cancer Development

Background: There have been claims of a potential link between radio frequency (RF) emissions from mobile phone stations and cancer. In addition, widespread public concern has been expressed about the placement of cell phone antennas due to concerns about the risk of cancer. Objective: The objective of the study was to assess the effect of mobile phone base stations on oxidant and antioxidant markers and to investigate its potential correlation with cancer progression. Methods: The study involved three groups: cancer patients, healthy individuals residing near mobile phone base stations, and a control group living away from such base stations. Results: The study revealed significant differences in most biochemical parameters among the groups, highlighting the impact of mobile phone base stations on health. Cancer patients residing near mobile phone base stations (Group 1) showed notable changes compared to healthy individuals living both near (Group 2) and far (Group 3, control group) from mobile phone base stations. Specifically, the harmful effects of mobile phone base stations were evident in the increased total oxidant status (TOS), decreased total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC), and altered liver enzymatic activities (AST, ALP, ALT, LDH). Conclusion: This study finding suggests that proximity to mobile phone base stations may negatively influence oxidative stress and liver function leading to cancer. Further research is necessary to fully understand these effects and develop appropriate public health strategies.

 Introduction

In recent decades, there has been a significant increase in the installation of mobile phone base stations and various wireless communications antennas globally [1]. This trend is evident in both urban and natural settings, including protected natural areas, alongside existing antennas for television, radio broadcasting, and radar [2, 3]. The focus of this deployment has primarily been on aesthetic considerations and adherence to urban regulations, with limited attention given to evaluating the biological, environmental, and health impacts associated with the emission of non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation [2]. Consequently, the potential effects on individuals living near these artificial electromagnetic field sources (antennas) have not been adequately addressed. The widespread use of cell phones has raised concerns about potential negative health effects, especially the risk of developing tumors [4]. Current research on cancer development in humans suggests that the time interval between initial exposure and clinical cancer diagnosis typically ranges from 10 to 20 years. While the electromagnetic fields emitted by cellular phones lack the energy required to break chemical bonds or harm DNA, making them unlikely to initiate tumor formation, there is a possibility that they may play a role in promoting tumor growth, potentially leading to a shorter induction period [5, 6].

There is great concern about the harmful effects of electromagnetic waves and radio frequencies generated by private communication stations [7]. The electromagnetic field radiation in mobile services originates from two main sources: mobile phones and mobile phone base stations [8-10]. The lower end of the electromagnetic spectrum is where these radiations are found. Therefore, their energy is unable to break the chemical bonds of molecules, and thus falls into the category of non-ionizing radiation [11, 12]. Many mobile phone towers are situated near or on top of schools, residential buildings, and hospitals, posing a threat to the public due to electromagnetic pollution. It has been said that mobile phone companies install their base stations wherever they want. Furthermore, the electromagnetic field (EMF) emissions from the base stations reached dangerously high levels.

As an external source of free radicals and reactive oxygen species (ROS), radiation is a potential cause of oxidative stress [13]. Other studies have shown that the levels of several antioxidants in the plasma of individuals living near mobile towers have significantly decreased, especially for glutathione, catalase, and superoxide dismutase [14-16]. Additionally, lipid peroxidation has been found to increase [17]. Radiation from mobile base stations may lead to changes in liver enzyme activity, which could potentially result in negative health effects [18]. The impact of low-level electromagnetic fields on biological systems and their potential association with the development of cancer remain a topic of debate within the scientific community. Numerous epidemiological investigations have explored the potential negative health consequences associated with environmental exposure to extremely low-frequency non-ionizing radiation (ranging from 0 to 300 Hz), commonly emitted by power cables and electric substations. These studies have suggested a correlation between such exposure and various forms of cancer, including leukemia, brain cancer, male breast cancer, as well as skin and eye melanoma.

This study aimed to investigate the effect of mobile phone base stations on total oxidant, total antioxidant, and other biochemical markers (ALT, AST, ALP, and LDH) and explore their potential correlation with cancer progression. The study included three groups: cancer patients, healthy people living near mobile phone base stations, and a control group living away from such networks.

 Materials and Methods <italic id="italic-e638dbe73a90168715de220db96f0069">2.1. </italic> <italic id="italic-2">Samples of study<italic id="italic-3"/></italic>

The samples were taken from male volunteers aged between 18 and 59 years living in Al Diwaniyah, Iraq. A total of 90 blood samples were collected from participants. Then the samples were classified into three separate groups for analysis. The serum was separated by centrifugation at 5000 rpm for 10 minutes at 4 °C and then stored at -70 °C until tests were conducted on them.

1. Group 1 (G1) consists of 30 individuals, comprised of cancer patients residing near mobile phone base stations.

2. Group 2 (G2) consists of 30 healthy individuals living in close to mobile phone base stations.

3. Group 3 (G3) consists of 30 healthy individuals living far from mobile phone base stations, serving as the control group for the study.

Exclusion criteria of control and patient groups

1. Renal diseases

2. Heart diseases

3. Liver diseases

4. Smoking

<italic id="italic-0e02d959ffb5a1bebbfea425305fd607">Control group<italic id="italic-4"/></italic>

Individuals appearing healthy were selected from the general population who live near the phone network station.

<italic id="italic-5">Inclusion Criteria of Control Group<italic id="italic-6"/></italic>

a. Individuals with no previous medical history of complications. b. No family history of liver disease. c. Parallel to cancer patients with respect to age, sex, and geographical distribution. d. Age at examination >18 years. g. BMI 18.5-25

<italic id="italic-7">2.2. </italic> <italic id="italic-8">Determination of TOS, and T-AOC levels<italic id="italic-9"/></italic>

TOS and T-AOC levels were both quantified using Erel’s method. Briefly, the oxidants present in the sample oxidized a ferrous ion-o-dianisidine complex to ferric ion. The oxidation reaction was facilitated by glycerol molecules, which are abundant in the reaction medium. The resulting ferric ion forms a colored complex with xylenol orange in an acidic medium. The intensity of the color, which was measured spectrophotometrically (Apel PD-303, Japan), correlates with the total concentration of oxidant molecules in the sample. The assay was calibrated using hydrogen peroxide, and the results were expressed in micromolar hydrogen peroxide equivalent per liter (µmol H₂O₂ Equiv/L) [19]. The method for T-AOC measurement initiates the production of hydroxyl radicals, known as the strongest biological radicals. In the procedure, Reagent 1 containing ferrous ions is combined with Reagent

2 containing hydrogen peroxide. This amalgamation generates sequential radicals, including the brown-colored dianisidine radical cation, prompted by the hydroxyl radical. These radicals are also potent in nature. The outcomes are presented as millimoles of Trolox Equivalent per liter (mmol Trolox Equiv/L) [20].

<italic id="italic-10">2.3. </italic> <italic id="italic-11">Determination of ALT, AST, ALP, and LDH levels<italic id="italic-12"/></italic>

Serum level of LDH level were assessed using commercial kits (Biosystem Spain) according to the manufacturer’s protocol. The serum level of AST, ALP, ALT were measured using Bayer Reagent Packs on an automated chemistry analyzer (Advia 1650 Autoanalyzer; Bayer Diagnostics, Leverkusen, Germany) and the values were determined and expressed as units per liter (U/L).

<italic id="italic-13">2.4. </italic> <italic id="italic-14">Statistical Analysis<italic id="italic-15"/></italic>

All data were statistically analyzed using SPSS software version 26 (2019). One-way ANOVA is a test procedure used to compare groups. p-values are calculated to signify statistical significance (P < 0.05). All experiments in the present study were repeated three times, and all data were expressed as mean ± standard deviation (SD).

 Results and Discussion

Total oxidant status (TOS) reflects the overall prooxidant status in the body [21], it is used alongside total antioxidant status (T-AOC) to provide a comprehensive view of the redox balance between oxidative stress and antioxidant status [22]. TOS measurements are crucial in understanding the general condition of oxidative stress within the body. T-AOC measurement is instrumental in evaluating the general antioxidant defense status in various health conditions, such as schizophrenia [23].

Table 1 shows a significant increase (P≤0.05) in G1 compared with G2 and G3 in Total oxidant (TOS) value and a non-significant increase in G2 compared with G3 (control group). It also shows a significant decrease (P≤0.05) in G1 compared to G2 and G3 in Total antioxidant (T-AOC) levels. The T-AOL level has also decreased significantly in the G2 group compared to the G3 group.

G TOS (µmol H2 O 2equiv./L)   T-AOC (mmol/L)  
NO.        
  Mean ±S.D p-value Mean ±S.D p-value
G1 2.300±0.187 G1 vs G2 0.364±0.008 G1 vs G2
    0.000*   0.000*
    G1 vs G3   G1 vs G3
    0.000*   0.000*
G2 1.782±0.064 G2 vs G3 0.479±0.059 G2 vs G3
    0.229   0.036*
G3 1.746±0.088   0.508±0.063  

*The mean difference is significant at (p ≤ 0.05)

Numerous articles have been published on the potential biological consequences of exposure to EMF and the biological interactions with EMF [24]. Contemporary research has demonstrated that electromagnetic fields affect the activity of endogenous antioxidants, leading to an increase in cellular free radical production [25]. Other studies of several antioxidants in the plasma of people who live near mobile towers found that their levels had significantly dropped, especially for GSH and CAT and SOD, and that lipid peroxidation had increased [26]. So, the continuous exposure of the body to EM radiation may result in a rise in the hepatic production of free radicals and present an increased oxidative stress status resulting from a significant elevation of the malondialdehyde (MDA) level (oxidation/antioxidant balance shifts to the oxidation state) thus, it leads to a decrease in active of some important antioxidant enzymes like this catalase and glutathione peroxidase [27]. Despite its complexity, LDH is a biomarker that is very desirable for cancer treatment since it is linked to the activation of several oncogenic signaling pathways, metabolic activity, invasiveness, and immunogenicity of many cancers [28]. Also, the activity of the enzyme (LDH) increases under the condition of oxidative stress [29].

Table 2 shows a significant increase (P≤0.05) in G1 compared with G2 and G3 in liver enzyme activity (AST) and shows a non-significant increase in G2 compared with G3 (control group). Significant decrease in G2 compared with G3 while shows a significant increase (P≤0.05) in G1 compared with G2 and non-significant increase in G1 and G2 compared with G3 in LDH. Also shows a non-significant increase in G1 compared with G2, and G2 compared to G3, and a significant increase (P≤0.05) compared to G3 in activity enzyme (ALP), while it was a non-significant increase in G1 compared with G2 and G3 and G2 compared to G3 in enzyme activity (ALT).

G AST(U/L)   ALP(U/L)   ALT(U/L)   LDH (U/L)  
NO. Mean±S.D p-value Mean±S.D p-value Mean±S.D p-value Mean±S.D p-value
G1 26.753±12.993 G1 vs G2 152.621±98.425 G1vs G2 10.758±10.916 G1vs G2 222.160±181.035 G1 vs G2
    0.000*   0.224   0.736   0.004*
    G1vs G3   G1 vs G3   G1 vs G3   G1 vs G3
    0.000*   0.032*   0.05   0.098
G2 11.629±9.293 G2 vs G3 128.937± 60.273 G2 vs G3 9.883±10.034 G2 vs G3 160.539±106.285 G2 vs G3
    0.113   0.285   0.069   0.326
G3 7.530±7.965   110.302± 43.894   5.619±5.811   124.123±55.162  

*The mean difference is significant at (p ≤ 0.05)

AST and ALT are recognized to be sensitive and specific liver disease enzymes that are produced by hepatocyte cells [30]. These enzymes may be detected in other tissues such as the heart, and kidney muscle, even though the liver is where they are most highly expressed. Chronic drinking, hepatocellular cancer, and tissue damage all cause elevated AST and ALT levels in people [31]. Alkaline phosphatase is an enzyme that is primarily found in the hepatobiliary tract, bone, placenta, and to a smaller extent in intestinal tissue. ALP is involved in multiple dephosphorylating reactions. Alkaline phosphatase is generally higher in children and adolescents due to the increased osteoblastic activity associated with bone growth [32]. Humans exposed to electromagnetic fields have an increase in stress-oxidative compounds and glucocorticoids (cortisol). The increased transamination process is a result of electromagnetic fields. The production of oxidative stress compounds may be the cause of the previously mentioned process. The reason for this increase may be due to the generation of free radicals in the human body from an exogenous source (electromagnetic radiation), which leads to oxidative stress and affects the effectiveness of liver enzymes [33]. Pearsons’s correlation coefficient (r) was used to analyze the correlation between distance of mobile phone network and the variables of the study. The Table 3 shows the correlation between distance of mobile phone network and AST, ALP, ALT, LDH, TOS, and T-AOC level in G1 group of the study.

Parameter Correlation p-value
AST -0.203 0.392
ALP -0.369 0.11
ALT -0.067 0.78
LDH -0.533** 0.002
TOS -0.528* 0.017
T-AOC 0.454* 0.044

*Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed), **Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)

The AST, ALP, and ALT levels show non-significant correlation with distance from mobile phone network, on the other hand LDH and TOS levels shows negative correlation with distance from mobile phone network and this correlation was significantly high with LDH level. Only T-AOC shows a significant positive correlation with distance from mobile phone network in this group. Perhaps the reason for this is that the proximity of mobile phone base stations to homes increases the body’s exposure to EM radiation and thus affects the effectiveness of enzymes [34]. The Table 4 indicated the correlation values between distance mobile phone network and AST, ALP, ALT, LDH, TOS, and T-AOC level in G2 group of the study.

Parameter Correlation p-value
AST -0.163 0.389
ALP -0.147 0.44
ALT -0.16 0.398
LDH -0.139 0.559
TOS -0.048 0.801
T-AOC 0.359 0.051

According to these results none of these biochemical parameters has any significant correlation with distance from mobile phone network. According to Figure 1 and Figure 2 the mean AST level in G1 was significantly higher than in G2. There was no significant difference in the mean ALP level between G1 and G2 groups. The mean ALT level in G1 group was not significantly different from G2 group according to results.

Finally, the mean LDH level in G1 group (Figure 1) is significantly higher than in G2 group (Figure 2). Finding suggests that there is a statistically significant difference in TOS and T-AOC levels between groups G1 and G2.

There is a moderate negative correlation between TOS and distance from mobile phone base stations in G1 group. This correlation is statistically lower in G2 group, and the lowest correlation between TOS and distance from mobile phone base stations was in G3 group (Figure 3).

The T-AOC level was the only parameter in this study with positive correlation with distance from mobile phone networks in all three groups. Accordingly, T-AOC level and distance from mobile phone base stations were significantly different between these groups. Figure 3 demonstrated a moderate negative correlation between LDH level and distance from mobile phone base stations. This correlation was statistically significant compared to the G3 group. According to Figure 3, there is a weak negative correlation between AST and distance from mobile phone base stations in G1 group, but this correlation was significantly higher in this group compared to G2 and G3 groups. There was a moderate negative correlation between ALP and distance from mobile phone base stations in G1 group, the correlation was also statistically significantly higher than G3 group. ALT demonstrated a negative correlation with mobile phone base stations in all G1, G2, and G3 groups, and there was no significant difference between these groups. In this study because of the limitation we included 90 individuals, we suggest studying a large number of participants and analyzing other cancer-related markers and other oxidant and antioxidant markers.

In conclusion, according to the results, the mobile phone base stations have harmful effects on some enzymes activity and can affect the health. It can be concluded that living near the mobile phone towers, have harmful effects on human health and long-term exposure to electromagnetic radiation from towers can cause cancer.

 Acknowledgments <italic id="italic-edb73daf8fe9c651992b4cfafb3bae69">Conflict of interest<italic id="italic-7649203233fecc2dc7fbda3150b94b8c"/></italic>

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interests.

<italic id="italic-76cb7afe2d8bfd7916c6a39a4cc49f60">Authors Contributions<italic id="italic-c58a4ce322340bacad2cb8fcd11e1510"/></italic>

Sara Ali Hadhod: Methodology, Investigation, Data curation, Original draft preparation.

Ali NooryFajer: Supervision, Conceptualization, Writing- Reviewing and Editing.

<italic id="italic-2bf4d5b9fe56c7fb09a583c8893b9bd2">Availability of data and materials<italic id="italic-a9e29239525322ba00f76e5b4afb5970"/></italic>

The data and materials that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author, upon reasonable request.

<italic id="italic-22a22e7e83265a6373b93172dace9eca">Ethical Approval<italic id="italic-d9b84bdcadf429e5194f736ba8eee264"/></italic>

This research protocol was evaluated and approved by Researches Ethics Committee of AL-Qadisiyah University, Iraq.

 <italic id="italic-51eaf6d7adf93339bee6e56b2e2ea33b">Funding<italic id="italic-11ea94c8eab1259e318e3e4e20ef30fb"/></italic>

The authors declare that no funds were received during the preparation of this manuscript.

References 18 07 58 2023 10.1029/2023RS007725 Tahseen H Mescia L Catarinucci L Radio Science A Survey of Five Generations of MIMO Multiband Base Station Antennas 393 446 2022 Balmori A Electromagnetic Fields of Wireless Communications: Biological and Health Effects Effects of man-made and especially wireless communication electromagnetic fields on wildlife 44 2 52 7 2023 Samaila B Abdullahi A Yahaya M Material Sci & Eng Residential exposure to non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation from mobile base stations: a systematic review on biological effects assessment Pt 2 11 113851 214 2022 10.1016/j.envres.2022.113851 Balmori A. Environmental Research Evidence for a health risk by RF on humans living around mobile phone base stations: From radiofrequency sickness to cancer Pt D 09 113321 212 2022 10.1016/j.envres.2022.113321 Jagetia GC Environmental Research Genotoxic effects of electromagnetic field radiations from mobile phones 1 02 e14257 54 2022 10.1111/and.14257 Hassanzadeh-Taheri M Khalili MA Hosseininejad Mohebati A Zardast M Hosseini M Palmerini MG Doostabadi MR Andrologia The detrimental effect of cell phone radiation on sperm biological characteristics in normozoospermic 26 03 2021 Khalil A Al-Qaoud K Alemam I Biochemical and Molecular Medicine Habits of Mobile Phone Use and Modulation of Selected Inflammatory Salivary Markers 13 06 1252 15 2023 10.3390/sym15061252 Yang Z Dang D Cheng X Mo J Zhou X Fang Y Peng Y Symmetry Analysis of Electromagnetic Radiation of Mobile Base Stations Co-located with High-Voltage Transmission Towers 12 12 56-64 20 2022 10.35596/1729-7648-2022-20-7-56-64 Mordachev V. Tsyanenka D. Doklady BGUIR Influence of Spatial Selectivity of Radiation of Mobile Communication Base Stations on the Level of Electromagnetic Background Introduced by them 9 4961-4964 14 2013 10.7314/apjcp.2013.14.9.4961 Mohammadzadeh N Safdari R Rahimi A Asian Pacific journal of cancer prevention: APJCP Cancer care management through a mobile phone health approach: key considerations 01 11 1548-1552 4 2017 Choudhary DM Vijay S International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology Study on Health Effects of Mobile Tower Radiation on Human Beings 5 1201 19 2018 10.22034/APJCP.2018.19.5.1201 Pagkatipunan PMN Asian Pacific Journal of Cancer Prevention : APJCP Peer Leaders and Phone Prompts: Implications in the Practice of Breast Care among College Students 5 05 65 49 2022 10.3892/ijmm.2022.5121 LiU R Bian Y Liu L Liu L Liu X Ma S International Journal of Molecular Medicine Molecular pathways associated with oxidative stress and their potential applications in radiotherapy (Review) 01 07 131-135 67 2023 10.25259/IJPP_474_2021 Pagadala P Shankar V Sumathi E Indian Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology Effect of mobile phone radiofrequency electromagnetic radiations on oxidative stress and feeding behaviour in Sprague Dawley (SD) rats 2 13 2023 Al-Allaq ZJ et al International Journal of Electrical & Computer Engineering (2088-8708) Discovering the spatial locations of the radio frequency radiations effects around mobile towers 2 409-418 25 2024 10.31557/APJCP.2024.25.2.409 Ataee E Shirekhoda M Nahvijou A Shahmoradi L Ramezanghorbani N Asian Pacific Journal of Cancer Prevention : APJCP Determining the Content of a Melanoma Prevention and Care Mobile Application for Melanoma Patients: A Survey Study 3 295-305 36 2017 10.1080/15368378.2017.1350584 Zothansiama N Zosangzuali M Lalramdinpuii M Jagetia GC Electromagnetic Biology and Medicine Impact of radiofrequency radiation on DNA damage and antioxidants in peripheral blood lymphocytes of humans residing in the vicinity of mobile phone base stations 01 01 233 1 2012 10.5958/j.2319-118X.1.3.021 Kumari K Kumar S Rajamani P Verma H Kesari K LS: International Journal of Life Sciences Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Field Exposure Effects on Antioxidant Enzymes and Liver Function Tests 12 12 1103-1111 38 2005 10.1016/j.clinbiochem.2005.08.008 Erel O Clinical Biochemistry A new automated colorimetric method for measuring total oxidant status 2 02 112-119 37 2004 10.1016/j.clinbiochem.2003.10.014 Erel O Clinical Biochemistry A novel automated method to measure total antioxidant response against potent free radical reactions 17 3 06 e004153 12 2024 10.1136/bmjdrc-2024-004153 Oksen D Aslan M BMJ open diabetes research & care Impact of oxidative stress on myocardial performance in patients with diabetes: a focus on subclinical left ventricular dysfunction 4 05 288-294 31 2016 10.1177/0267659115598856 Menteşe U Turan I Usta S Demir S Koral Ö Öztaş Menteşe S Çavuşoğlu IG et al Perfusion Systemic oxidant/antioxidant balance in human abdominal aortic aneurysm 1 8-11 59 2009 10.1159/000202823 Al-Chalabi BM Thanoon IAJ Ahmed FA Neuropsychobiology Potential effect of olanzapine on total antioxidant status and lipid peroxidation in schizophrenic patients 3 04 615-625 70 2016 10.1007/s00244-015-0195-y Gulati S Yadav A Kumar N Kanupriya n Aggarwal NK Kumar R Gupta R Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology Effect of GSTM1 and GSTT1 Polymorphisms on Genetic Damage in Humans Populations Exposed to Radiation From Mobile Towers 2 e79-e87 29 2022 10.47750/jptcp.2022.934 Mahmood MN Shaker AH Mohammed HE Journal of Population Therapeutics and Clinical Pharmacology = Journal De La Therapeutique Des Populations Et De La Pharmacologie Clinique Estimation of some antioxidants in people exposed to electromagnetic waves from Internet towers in Samarra 01 09 100182 19 2019 10.1016/j.plgene.2019.100182 Kapoor D Singh S Kumar V Romero R Prasad R Singh J Plant Gene Antioxidant enzymes regulation in plants in reference to reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) 01 01 133-141 18 2020 10.18869/acadpub.ijrr.18.1.133 Moradpour R. Shokri M. Abedian S. Amiri F International Journal of Radiation Research The protective effect of melatonin on liver damage induced by mobile phone radiation in mice model 12 12 749-762 19 2022 10.1038/s41571-022-00686-2 Claps G Faouzi S Quidville V Chehade F Shen S Vagner S Robert C Nature Reviews. Clinical Oncology The multiple roles of LDH in cancer 1 02 83-88 10 2010 10.17305/bjbms.2010.2743 Jovanovic P Zoric L Stefanovic I Dzunic B Djordjevic-Jocic J Radenkovic M Jovanovic M Bosnian Journal of Basic Medical Sciences Lactate dehydrogenase and oxidative stress activity in primary open-angle glaucoma aqueous humour 9 13 38 2004 Senturk H Canbakan B Hatemi I Cerrahpasa Medicine Faculty A clinical approach to high levels of liver enzymes 01 07 1302-1308 3 2015 Hashim W International Journal of Advanced Research Effects of Electromagnetic Waves of Mobile Phone Towers on Lipid profile, Liver functions and Blood Electrolytes of Human Beings 27 11 11 1688-1698 13 2021 10.4254/wjh.v13.i11.1688 Kalas MA Chavez L Leon M Taweesedt PT Surani S World Journal of Hepatology Abnormal liver enzymes: A review for clinicians 1 01 11-26 30 2015 10.1007/s12291-014-0446-0 Phaniendra A Jestadi DB Periyasamy L Indian journal of clinical biochemistry: IJCB Free radicals: properties, sources, targets, and their implication in various diseases 08 08 2022 10.21608/ejchem.2022.141247.6173 ICC I Kadhim L Mohammed M Al-Fartusie F Almohammadawi K Egyptian Journal of Chemistry The Effect of Electrical Substations and Cellular Communication Towers on Oxidative Stress and Thyroid Gland Hormones